Low genetic diversity and limited genetic structure across the range of the critically endangered Mexican howler monkey (Alouatta palliata mexicana).

Genetic diversity provides populations with the possibility to persist in ever-changing environments, where selective regimes change over time. Therefore, the long-term survival of a population may be affected by its level of genetic diversity. The Mexican howler monkey (Alouatta palliata mexicana) is a critically endangered primate restricted to southeast Mexico. Here, we evaluate the genetic diversity and population structure of this subspecies based on 83 individuals from 31 groups sampled across the distribution range of the subspecies, using 29 microsatellite loci. Our results revealed extremely low genetic diversity (HO = 0.21, HE = 0.29) compared to studies of other A. palliata populations and to other Alouatta species. Principal component analysis, a Bayesian clustering method, and analyses of molecular variance did not detect strong signatures of genetic differentiation among geographic populations of this subspecies. Although we detect small but significant FST values between populations, they can be explained by a pattern of isolation by distance. These results and the presence of unique alleles in different populations highlight the importance of implementing conservation efforts in multiple populations across the distribution range of A. p. mexicana to preserve its already low genetic diversity. This is especially important given current levels of population isolation due to the extreme habitat fragmentation across the distribution range of this primate.

Plasmodium infection and its association with biochemical and haematological parameters in free-living Alouatta guariba clamitans (Cabrera, 1940) (Primates: Atelidae) in Southern Brazil.

BACKGROUND: The influence of Plasmodium spp. infection in the health of Southern brown howler monkey, Alouatta guariba clamitans, the main reservoir of malaria in the Atlantic Forest, is still unknown. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate the positivity rate of Plasmodium infection in free-living howler monkeys in an Atlantic Forest fragment in Joinville/SC and to associate the infection with clinical, morphometrical, haematological and biochemical alterations. METHODS: Molecular diagnosis of Plasmodium infection in the captured monkeys was performed by Nested-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (18S rRNA and coxI). Haematological and biochemical parameters were compared among infected and uninfected monkeys; clinical and morphometrical parameters were also compared. FINDINGS: The positivity rate of Plasmodium infection was 70% among forty captured animals, the highest reported for neotropical primates. None statistical differences were detected in the clinical parameters, and morphometric measures comparing infected and uninfected groups. The main significant alteration was the higher alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels in infected compared to uninfected monkeys. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Therefore, Plasmodium infection in howler monkeys may causes haematological/biochemical alterations which might suggest hepatic impairment. Moreover, infection must be monitored for the eco-epidemiological surveillance of malaria in the Atlantic Forest and during primate conservation program that involves the animal movement, such as translocations.

Hematological and serum biochemistry data on southern brown howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans) in captivity in Brazil.

BACKGROUND: Physiological values reflect the health condition and responses of individuals to handling in captivity. The aim of this study was to establish hematological and serum biochemistry parameters of clinically healthy animals of the Alouatta guariba clamitans subspecies. METHODS: We collected blood samples from adult males and females kept at the Center for Biological Research of Indaial after chemical containment with 3.9 mg/kg of tiletamine hydrochloride and zolazepam. RESULTS: Significant differences between males and females were found in the levels of erythrocytes, hemoglobin, hematocrit, lymphocytes, neutrophils, platelets, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), and gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase (GGT). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest the existence of sexual dimorphism in some physiological parameters of A guariba clamitans. The parameters reported herein can be used as reference values for other populations kept under similar conditions.

Plasmodium infection and its association with biochemical and haematological parameters in free-living Alouatta guariba clamitans (Cabrera, 1940) (Primates: Atelidae) in Southern Brazil

BACKGROUND The influence of Plasmodium spp. infection in the health of Southern brown howler monkey, Alouatta guariba clamitans, the main reservoir of malaria in the Atlantic Forest, is still unknown. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to investigate the positivity rate of Plasmodium infection in free-living howler monkeys in an Atlantic Forest fragment in Joinville/SC and to associate the infection with clinical, morphometrical, haematological and biochemical alterations. METHODS Molecular diagnosis of Plasmodium infection in the captured monkeys was performed by Nested-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (18S rRNA and coxI). Haematological and biochemical parameters were compared among infected and uninfected monkeys; clinical and morphometrical parameters were also compared. FINDINGS The positivity rate of Plasmodium infection was 70% among forty captured animals, the highest reported for neotropical primates. None statistical differences were detected in the clinical parameters, and morphometric measures comparing infected and uninfected groups. The main significant alteration was the higher alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels in infected compared to uninfected monkeys. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Therefore, Plasmodium infection in howler monkeys may causes haematological/biochemical alterations which might suggest hepatic impairment. Moreover, infection must be monitored for the eco-epidemiological surveillance of malaria in the Atlantic Forest and during primate conservation program that involves the animal movement, such as translocations.

Biochemical and hematological evaluations of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) in highly degraded landscapes in Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Loss and fragmentation of Neotropical primates' habitat can alter the health and individual adaptation. Physiological parameters reflect health status and individuals responses to the habitat conditions. METHODS: We captured six wild adult females and six adult males of Alouatta pigra to evaluate their physical condition (body mass, respiratory and heart rate, and rectal temperature), hematology and blood chemistry on fragmentation habitat condition at southeastern Mexico. RESULTS: The males weighed more than females, but the female' temperature, respiratory rate, and heart rate were higher. Low values of hemoglobin, hematocrit, and red blood cells suggest some degree of anemia in these howler monkeys. Low levels of the total protein, albumin, albumin/globulin Ratio, and low levels of blood urea nitrogen suggest that howler monkeys could have protein and carbohydrate deficiencies. CONCLUSIONS: Howler monkeys living under the highly degraded conditions at Balancán, Tabasco, could be showing adaptability by modifying their physiology, hematology, and blood chemistry in response to the conditions of their fragmented landscape.

Hematological parameters and the variations resulting from stress of Alouatta caraya during a wildlife rescue program in Brazil.

Deforestation and habitat fragmentation are major threats to the conservation status of New World primates, such as the howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) in Brazil, where vegetation destruction is often associated with projects such as Small Hydro Power Plant (SHP) construction. The resulting stress from the implementation of this type of enterprise may be a factor that influences individual susceptibility against pathogens and can determine the success or failure of mitigation measures proposed by responsible and/or requested companies by environmental agencies. To perform health monitoring and to understand physiological changes that ensued from the stress of capturing and keeping primates in captivity, we determined the blood profile of A. caraya rescued at the time of capture (N = 15) and in captivity (N = 11). Complete blood counts (CBCs) performed at the time of capture showed hematological changes compatible with acute stress, such as evident neutrophilic leukocytosis (WBCs; females = 20.48 ± 7.26; males = 18.78 ± 10.39 × 10(9) /L). In captivity, monocytosis was observed in both sexes (females = 1.34 ± 0.26; males = 0.39 ± 0.32 × 10(9) /L; U-test, P = 0.01), suggesting chronic stress. In females, there was also statistically significant eosinopenia (0.28 ± 0.10 × 10(9) /L; U-test, P = 0.01) and hematocrit increases (39.00 ± 1.41%; U-test, P = 0.01). Thus, data shows the impact of both capture related acute stress as well as captivity chronic stress, suggesting that primate management in the implementation of these projects causes significant changes in physiological parameters and, consequently, animal health. Whereas chronic stress is an inducer of immunosuppression and susceptibility to pathogen factors, monitoring hematological parameters in captive animals can act as an indicator of health status, contributing to the success of management and conservation wildlife programs. Am. J. Primatol. 77:246-253, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Hematological and biochemical blood values in wild populations of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) of Campeche, México.

BACKGROUND: The clinical analyses of free-ranging New World primates are extremely limited. The aim of this study was to obtain baseline data of blood chemistry and hematological values of free-ranging Alouatta pigra. METHOD: 17 males and 17 females were captured. We collected blood from the caudal tail vein; conventional techniques were used to analyze the samples RESULTS: Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and erythrocytes were significantly higher in males than in females. In relation to biochemical blood values, albumin/globulin ratio, cholesterol, triglycerides, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and iron were significantly higher in males than in females, while creatinine was significantly higher in females than in males. CONCLUSIONS: In general, measured parameters are similar to those of other primates and will be used as reference values for futures studies.

Detection of etiological agents of malaria in howler monkeys from Atlantic Forests, rescued in regions of São Paulo city, Brazil.

BACKGROUND: In some states of the Brazilian extra-Amazonian region, such as the Atlantic Forest area, autochthonous human cases of malaria were related to simian malarias and vice versa. METHODS: To verify the presence of Plasmodium, 50 blood samples of howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans) rescued from the Metropolitan Region of Saõ Paulo city, where the Atlantic Forest is present, were analyzed. The samples were submitted to microscopy (thin and thick blood smears), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), indirect immunofluorescent assay (IFA), and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). RESULTS: Only one smear showed forms reminiscent of Plasmodium vivax. In ELISA, the frequencies of antibodies against synthetic peptides corresponding to circumsporozoite protein of P. vivax VK210 'classic' (Pvc), P. vivax VK247, human P. vivax-like (Pvk and Pvl), P. malariae/P. brasilianum (Pm), and P. falciparum (Pf) were 24.0% (12/50) for Pvc, 8.0% (04/50) for Pvk, 6.0% (03/50) for Pvl, 24.0% (12/50) for Pm, and 28.0% (14/50) for Pf, while the frequency of antibodies against PvMSP119 recombinant proteins was 42.0% (21/50). No serum reacted against PfMSP1-19. In IFA,the seropositivity of antibodies against asexual forms of P. malariae was 31.3% (15/48). We utilized three PCR protocols to develop a molecular consensus (positive results in, at least, two protocols). The frequency of Plasmodium infections detected by PCR was 18.0% (09/50) for P. vivax, 4.0% (02/50) for P. malariae, and 76.0% (38/50) of samples were negative. The molecular consensus was not seen in 4.0% (02/50) of samples. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that a possible interaction between human and simian malaria coming from a zoonotic cycle cannot be discarded because simians that live in the areas of the Atlantic Forest could play a role as a reservoir for Plasmodium.

Blood parameters are little affected by time of sampling after the application of ketamine in black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra).

BACKGROUND: Ketamine hydrochloride is an anesthetic commonly utilized to obtain biological samples in various non-human primates. Its application alters individual hematologic and biochemical values. The aim of this study was to analyze its effect on blood parameters of Alouatta pigra. METHOD: We collected blood samples at 10 and 40 minutes after the application of ketamine in 12 adult female A. pigra living in free-ranging conditions. RESULTS: The analysis showed that 40 minutes after application of ketamine, the number of platelets, lymphocytes and concentration of phosphorus decreased; however, creatinine, cholesterol, triglycerides, and potassium values increased. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that ketamine appears to have little effect on the hematology and blood biochemistry of Alouatta pigra females with respect to those reported for other non-human primates. It is also important to consider the elapsed time after their application when taking blood samples for proper interpretation of the hemogram of Alouatta pigra females.

Pancreatite aguda necrótica em bugio-ruivo (Alouatta guariba clamitans) macho adulto / Necrotic acute pancreatitis in male adult Southern Brown Howler Monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans)

This paper reports the development of necrotic acute pancreatitis in a captive male adult Southern Brown Howler Monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans, Cabrera, 1940) presenting acute apathy and anorexia. Blood samples were collected and supportive treatment was made although death could not be avoided. Necropsy was performed. First erythrogram results showed polycythaemia due to dehydration; second exam revealed anemia after fluid administration. Leukopenia with neutropenia suggested poor prognosis. Creatinine was in the reference range although BUN (blood urea nitrogen) was increased. Increased alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and creatin kinase serum activities were observed. Amylase and lipase serum activities were incredibly high. Necropsy revealed intense icterus in subcutaneous tissue and internal structures, including misshapen pancreas with rare glandular tissue. Acute pancreatitis diagnosis was made by clinical signs, laboratory findings, and necropsy.

Valores hematológicos de bugios pretos (Alouatta caraya) de vida livre da região do Alto Rio Paraná, sul do Brasil / Hematologic values of free-ranging black-and-gold howlers monkeys (Alouatta caraya) from the region of Upper Paraná River, Southern Brazil

Descreveram-se os valores hematológicos de bugios pretos (Alouatta caraya) e estabeleceram-se diferenças entre sexo e idade, de 36 animais aparentemente saudáveis, de vida livre da região do Alto Rio Paraná, sul do Brasil. Os animais foram capturados e contidos quimicamente com cloridrato de tiletamina e cloridrato de zolazepam, na dose média de 5,5mg/kg, por via intramuscular. Na comparação entre os sexos, houve diferença para número de hemácias (4,48±1,36 e 3,58±0,91 x10(6)/mm³), maior nas fêmeas, e volume globular médio (90,99±27,65 e 118,36±44,63fL) e número de eosinófilos (0,30±0,24 e 0,76±0,85 x10³/mm³), maior nos machos. O volume globular (39,46±3,53 e 36,69±3,54 por cento) e a proteína total plasmática (7,91±0,53 e 7,40±0,63g/dL) foram significativamente mais baixos nos animais jovens.

The hematologic values and the influence of gender and age were described in 36 free-ranging healthy black-and-gold howler monkeys (Alouatta caraya) from the region of Paraná river, Southern Brazil. The animals were caught with trap models and intramuscularly anesthetized with 5.5mg/kg tilitamine/zolazepam hydrochlorides. The red blood cells were higher in females (4.48±1,36 vs. 3.58±0.91x10(6)/mm³) while mean corpuscular volume (90.99±27.65 and 118.36±44.63 fL) and eosinophils (0.30±0.24 and 0.76±0.85x10³/mm³) were significant higher in males. The packed cell volume (39.46±3.53 and 36.69±3.54 percent) and plasma total protein (7.91±0.53 and 7.40±0.63g/dL) were lower in juveniles.

Hematology and serum biochemistry values of free-ranging red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) from French Guiana.

One hundred twenty-two wild red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) were translocated during flooding of the forest at a hydroelectric dam site in French Guiana. Blood samples from 103 animals were evaluated for 13 hematologic and/or 22 serum chemistry parameters. Significant age-specific variation was found for white blood cell (WBC), lymphocyte, and platelet counts and for alkaline phosphatase values. Adult males and females had significant differences in red blood cell count, packed cell volume, and hemoglobin, creatinine, cholesterol, and calcium values. In juveniles, amylase and cholesterol levels were significantly lower in males than in females. Significant differences associated with reproductive status were also observed; i.e., lower cholesterol level in pregnant females and higher packed cell volume in lactating females. Chronic stress due to habitat disappearance may have been responsible for significant differences between thin animals and those in good condition. Thin animals had lower WBC, eosinophil, basophil, and monocyte counts and higher platelet counts. Capture stress was probably responsible for high and variable levels of creatine kinase, aspartate aminotransferase, and lactate dehydrogenase.

Coat color and biochemical variation in Amazonian wild populations of Alouatta belzebul.

A comparative study of 13 blood genetic systems and pelage color variation was performed in four wild populations of Alouatta belzebul. The animals from the west bank of the Tocantins River showed less color variation than those from the east bank, as well as less than those from Tocantins Island. The blood genetic markers, however, revealed an opposite pattern of variation. A previously undescribed morphological variant (completely red) was observed in one specimen of the east bank, where pelage color of the local population varied from completely black to completely red. Levels of heterozygosity and inter- and intralocus variances for the blood systems are compared with those observed in five other species of New World primates.

Plasma lipoproteins of free-ranging howling monkeys (Alouatta palliata).

1. Plasma lipids and lipoproteins of free-ranging howling monkeys from Costa Rica (Alouatta palliata), aged 5 months to 23 years, were characterized. 2. High density lipoproteins were lipid-rich, similar to HDL2 of human plasma. 3. Fatty acid compositions of major lipid classes of very low, low and high density lipoproteins differed among social groups, possibly due to both dietary and genetic factors. 4. Low and high density lipoprotein phospholipids were enriched in phosphatidylethanolamine. 5. Howler plasma cross reacted with antihuman apoA-I antibodies but not with antihuman LDL antibodies. 6. No dimeric form of apoA-II was present, unlike human apoA-II.

Blood groups of the mantled howler monkey (Alouatta palliata).

Fifty-two howler monkeys were tested for their human-type A-B-O blood groups. All were group B, as shown by the presence of B and H in their saliva, and anti-A in serum. The B-like agglutinogen of their red cells is common to all New World monkey species tested, and is of different origin and significance than their true A-B-O blood group. Differences among the B-like agglutinogens of the red cells of howler monkeys, marmosets, rabbits and humans group B were demonstrated, and limited tests have also been performed to study the biochemical basis of the anti-B reactions.

In vitro survival of howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) and other simian lymphocytes.

Lymphoid cell cultures from normal howler monkey (Alouatta caraya) lymph nodes or peripheral blood were found to survive for over four months. Several-fold increase in cell numbers occurred during the first two months of culture. The cells were predominantly of T-cell origin. Herpes or C-type virus or viral genomes were not detected in these lymphoid type cultures.

Comparative immunochemical studies of primate hemoglobins.

The antigenic properties of a number of chromatographically purified primate hemoglobins were compared to those of normal human hemoglobin using a sensitive radioimmunochemical procedure. The degree of inhibition of the antigen-antibody reaction with heterologous hemoglobins appeared to be related to the structural similarity of these proteins to the normal human hemoglobin immunogen. With the exception of the baboon hemoglobin, the antigenicity of the hemoglobins paralleled the phylogeny of the primates. The gorilla and chimpanzee hemoglobins were antigenically identical to normal human hemoglobin, whereas the gibbon and orangutan hemoglobins were substantially more variable. Of the Old World monkey hemoglobins examined, the baboon produced lower inhibition values, suggesting a greater degree of structural dissimilarity than other Cercopithecoidea hemoglobins, which is compatible with a greater rate of evolutionary change occurring in this protein. Using the known amino acid sequences of human and other primate hemoglobins, we have attempted to identify antigenic determinant areas of the proteins.